What Causes Low Self-Esteem? Understanding the Causes and How to Overcome It

Low self-esteem can shape how we see ourselves, our relationships, and the choices we make every day. In New York City, where pressure, comparison, and constant demands are part of daily life, many of us struggle quietly with self-doubt.

At We Rise NYC, we work with individuals and groups who want to understand these patterns and build a healthier relationship with themselves. As therapists serving New Yorkers, we often see how early experiences, trauma, relationships, and self-critical thinking influence self-worth. In this article, we explore the common causes of low self-esteem, how they show up in daily life, and practical steps toward lasting change and healing for ourselves and others.

How Childhood Experiences and Family Shape Self-Esteem

When we wonder why we struggle with confidence or feel not quite “good enough,” a lot of the answers can be traced back to the earliest years. Family shapes more than just our accent or habits, it sets the tone for how we treat ourselves on the inside. If you’re someone who still hears your parents’ judgments echoing in your mind, or who learned early to stay out of the spotlight, you’re not alone.

It’s through our family, caregivers, siblings, the whole mix, that most of us first get an idea of how much we matter. Warmth, encouragement, or simply being listened to as a kid plants the seeds for feeling secure. On the flip side, chaos, neglect, criticism, or even well-meaning pressure builds up those hidden doubts. Many adults only realize later how much these early messages still affect their self-esteem, a connection supported by research on childhood experiences and adult self-esteem (AlShawi & Lafta, 2014).

This part of our discussion unpacks the ways in which different family styles, trauma, and support (or lack of it) influence how we walk through life. It’s about recognizing what was out of your control, and learning to look back with a bit more compassion for who you were, and for who you’re becoming.

Family Environments and Different Parenting Styles

Our earliest lessons about worth and belonging almost always come from home. Strict, critical, or emotionally distant parents might leave you feeling as if nothing you do is ever quite enough, and research on parenting styles and self-esteem has found that different parenting approaches can be significantly associated with how young adults evaluate themselves (Gul et al., 2024). On the other side, parents who are inconsistent or too permissive might make the world feel unpredictable, leaving you unsure of your own boundaries or value. Even overprotective parenting can quietly suggest you’re not trusted to handle life on your own.

These styles shape your internal radio station, the voice that either cheers you on or undercuts your every move. Becoming aware of these patterns is the start of choosing how you want to show up today, not just replaying the old family script.

Childhood Trauma, Abuse, and Adverse Experiences

Not all scars are visible. The impact of childhood trauma, abuse, or other painful experiences runs deep and wide. If you grew up facing emotional neglect, harsh criticism, physical abuse, or sexual harm, it can fundamentally shape how you see yourself. Even years later, those wounds may echo as a sense of being “less than,” or not safe in your own skin. It’s not uncommon for folks, especially in places like New York where everyone’s hurrying along, to push these memories aside, but ignoring them doesn’t make them disappear.

Lasting effects might show up as trouble regulating your emotions or a nagging self-judgment that’s hard to shake. Feeling broken or unlovable is a familiar aftermath for many who have survived adversity as kids, and research suggests that self-esteem can play an important mediating role between adverse childhood experiences and later depressive symptoms (Kim et al., 2021). That’s why healing begins first with recognizing that these are real, powerful forces, not weaknesses.

Invalidating Environments and Lack of Emotional Support

Sometimes the harm isn’t dramatic, it’s subtle, like growing up where feelings are brushed aside or labeled as “too much.” If you were told to get over it, quit crying, or keep your struggles quiet, those messages can stick. Families that downplay, mock, or ignore emotions effectively teach us to question our own needs as adults, and experimental research on validation and invalidation suggests that invalidating emotional responses can shape how people experience and regulate difficult feelings (Kuo et al., 2022).

This kind of quiet invalidation can make you feel invisible, always waiting for a stamp of approval that never comes. Recognizing this pattern can be the first real taste of freedom, it’s okay to want support, and it’s not selfish to ask for it.

How Psychological Patterns and Negative Self-Talk Affect Self-Esteem

Even if you grew up in a supportive home, self-doubt can sneak in through our own thoughts. Living in a busy place like New York, where the world never seems to slow down, gives our worries and inner critics plenty of stage time. Recurring negative self-talk, harsh judgments, and constant rumination can quietly wear down your confidence day after day.

So many of us live with a mind that won’t cut us any slack, a voice in your head that dismisses wins and magnifies slip-ups. This section explores where these critical voices come from, why perfectionism feels so hard to shake, and why old thought habits can be so strong, even when we know better. You’ll find a focus on how those patterns form, and what it takes to start changing the channel in your own mind.

With the right tools and a little awareness, it’s possible to challenge the inner critic. If you’re feeling overwhelmed by racing thoughts or anxious mind loops, resources like CBT-focused therapy with We Rise NYC can help slow things down and teach you how to respond differently to your inner commentary.

Negative Self-Talk and Managing Intrusive Thoughts

• The Sound of Negative Self-Talk: This inner critic is like a relentless commentator, quick to point out what you did wrong and skeptical of every achievement. It sounds like “I’ll never get this right” or “I’m such an idiot for trying.” For many, that voice gets louder in stressful environments, overshadowing any bits of self-kindness.
• How Intrusive Thoughts Operate: These are those random, often harsh ideas that pop into your mind seemingly out of nowhere (“What if I fail?” or “Everyone’s judging me”). They can repeat like a broken subway speaker, stirring up anxiety or shame. Sometimes, these thoughts focus on imagined disasters or replay old insults from the past.
• The Impact Over Time: Living with a constant stream of self-criticism can make you second-guess decisions or avoid pursuing dreams. It fuels feelings of worthlessness and becomes exhausting to challenge on your own. But know this: intrusive thoughts are common, and they don’t mean there’s something “wrong” with you.
• Steps to Challenge Them: Awareness is key. With practice, and yes, it takes practice, you can learn to catch the critic in action. Gentle questioning, pausing to breathe, or even writing out your worries gives you some distance. For those wrestling with persistent, unwanted thoughts or compulsions, specialized support like OCD therapy (using methods like ERP or CBT) can help break the cycle and reclaim mental space.

Awareness of Self-Talk and Recognizing Patterns

• Notice Your Inner Voice: Pay attention to when your thoughts get harsh or self-critical, moments like a mistake at work or a social interaction that felt off.
• Practice Mindful Pausing: When negative patterns arise, try to pause, breathe, and observe. Even a small pause can interrupt the spiral.
• Question the Critic: Ask yourself where those harsh words might’ve started. Sometimes recognizing the old soundtrack helps you realize it isn’t really you talking.

Perfectionism, Fear of Failure, and Unrealistic Standards

Perfectionism isn’t a harmless quirk, it’s a deep drive to avoid any mistake, often fueled by old fears of disappointment or rejection. In a city where “good enough” never seems enough, perfectionism takes root. It’s about chasing impossibly high standards, whether at work, with friends, parenting, or just existing in public.

The trouble is these standards move the finish line. No matter how much you accomplish, perfectionism rarely lets you feel proud. Fear of failing becomes so strong, it can stop you from trying new things at all. You may procrastinate, hide your true ambitions, or stay “safe” in what’s familiar. Overly critical authority figures, teachers, parents, or early bosses, often plant these seeds, teaching us that only top performance earns love or respect.

This kind of thinking keeps self-esteem locked up tight, and research suggests that self-esteem may help explain the relationship between perfectionism and mental health outcomes (Curtis & Garratt-Reed, 2026). It’s not about healthy striving, it’s about never allowing yourself to rest, or to see yourself as enough. Spotting perfectionism is the first step: with compassion, not more self-blame, you can start to change the story you tell yourself.

Peer Relationships, Criticism, and the Power of Social Comparison

No matter our age, who we spend time with shapes a lot of how we see ourselves. Friends, coworkers, classmates, public spaces, even anonymous folks online, they all hold surprising power over our self-worth. In a place where status and social standing feel like currency, comparing ourselves to others can become automatic.

After all, it’s normal to feel vulnerable when you’re around people who seem more successful, more confident, or just more “together.” For some, criticism or exclusion from peers, whether in childhood or the workplace, leaves growing scars. We start to second-guess, replay social snubs, or dread negative feedback long after the moment has passed.

This section explores the impact of relationships and social environments, why comparison is so ingrained, and how social influence lingers. You’ll see how shaping self-worth isn’t just about what happens inside you, but also reflects the world we’re moving through. Many of us live with a blend of kindness and competition all around.

Peer Experiences and Sensitivity to Criticism

• Acceptance and Rejection: Feeling like you belong, or don’t, starts early, often in school, but it echoes into adulthood. Social acceptance by peers builds a basic sense of being “okay,” while repeated exclusion or bullying can spark deep self-doubt.
• Lasting Impact of Criticism: Feedback from peers, managers, or even friends often hits harder than we expect. If you find yourself replaying a critical comment for days, that’s a sign your self-esteem is sensitive to outside opinions. Old wounds from being teased in childhood or critiqued in professional settings can linger in the background, making criticism feel personal instead of constructive.
• Performance Reviews in Adult Life: For many, the anxiety of being evaluated at work or compared to others is not about the task, it’s about your need for approval. Sensitivity here isn’t a weakness. It’s usually a sign there’s an old story about “good enough” still running under the surface.
• Why ‘Too Sensitive’ Is a Myth: Being hurt by criticism or feeling self-conscious is not about being “dramatic.” It’s about learned responses and social survival. Recognizing these patterns is the beginning of healing. It helps to look with curiosity instead of judgment, there’s a reason you react the way you do, and you deserve compassion, not more blame.

Limiting Social Comparison and Navigating Social Media

• Set Boundaries with Social Media: Try limiting your scroll time and unfollowing accounts that make you feel small. Even taking short breaks gives your mind space to reset.
• Shift to Your Own Values: When you catch yourself comparing, ask, “What actually matters to me?” Turning toward your personal strengths or passions grounds your self-worth on something real, not someone else’s highlights.
• Practice Mindful Observation: Become aware when comparison flares up, and remind yourself that most ‘perfection’ online is curated, not reality. With time, it gets easier to tune out the noise and appreciate your uniqueness.

Societal and Cultural Pressures That Impact Self-Esteem

Sometimes our struggles with self-worth don’t come from individual experiences, but from the big picture, the culture we live and work in. Society quietly and not-so-quietly shoves expectations onto us about beauty, gender, race, and success. From billboards to family tables, the pressure to look, earn, love, or act a certain way never lets up. For many New Yorkers, these demands are even louder, mixing with the city’s diversity and ever-changing trends.

It’s tough to feel confident when every direction says, “Change yourself to fit in.” Expectations about body, appearance, achievement, and family roles seep in early and rarely fade. The standards may be impossible, but the stress of not measuring up feels very real. Whether you grew up in a family focused on group reputation or individual success, cultural values can shape what you believe about yourself for life.

This part of our conversation digs into the invisible and not-so-invisible ways society and culture mold our self-esteem. The goal is to shine a light on these hidden influences and remind you: these expectations are not the measure of your worth as a human being.

Body Image, Eating Concerns, and Appearance Standards

• Constant Exposure to Appearance Standards: From subway posters to Instagram feeds, New Yorkers face relentless pressure to look a certain way. The city’s focus on fashion and fitness often sets the bar impossibly high, making “good enough” feel out of reach for many.
• The Roots of Body Image Struggles: Issues with eating or appearance can start early, especially for those who grew up being watched or judged for how they look. Even passing comments in childhood can spark years of self-doubt tied to food or body shape.
• Lasting Impacts: For some, preoccupation with weight, diet, or looks becomes a major part of daily life, driven by the fear of not measuring up. It’s not just about vanity; these pressures touch on feeling worthy or lovable at the core.
• Why These Standards Miss the Point: None of these outside standards reflect your true value as a person. The best step is often awareness, recognizing when outside messages seep in, and learning to challenge or question them. If food, weight, or body image dominates your thoughts, talking with a professional can help you rebuild confidence and focus on what matters most: your actual health and well-being, not some made-up ideal.

How Mental Health and Neurodiversity Influence Self-Esteem

Mental health has a way of shaping, or even hijacking, the way we see ourselves, especially when conditions like depression, anxiety, ADHD, or learning challenges are involved. You might ask yourself, “Is this just who I am?” But in reality, struggles with self-worth are often tangled up with real medical and neurological factors beyond your control. For many, these issues aren’t just about “thinking positive”, they’re shaped by biology, temperament, and sometimes the misunderstandings of others.

If you live with a diagnosis, neurodivergence, or a brain that just works differently, New York’s fast pace can intensify doubts and chips away at confidence. Learning differences, unique temperaments, or ongoing mental health challenges don’t mean you’re broken, just that you’re wired for a different rhythm, and the city’s beat isn’t made for everyone. This section brings validation: your struggles aren’t due to lack of effort or willpower.

You’ll read how mood, energy, anxiety, and the world’s response to your differences can shape your self-esteem. If you need support managing symptoms or making sense of your feelings, resources like depression therapy or anxiety therapy at We Rise NYC can help lift some of the weight, even if you don’t leave your apartment.

Depression, Anxiety Disorders, and Impact on Self-Worth

• Circular Trap of Depression: Feeling stuck in sadness or hopelessness isn’t just about mood, it undercuts belief in your abilities, your likability, and even your purpose. Depression loves to lie, whispering that you ‘can’t’ or ‘don’t matter,’ making every step forward feel heavier.
• Anxiety’s Self-Esteem Rollercoaster: Racing thoughts, worries, or panic can quickly fuel self-doubt. Anxiety might convince you that you’re always going to mess up, say the wrong thing, or let people down. These beliefs get reinforced each time you avoid risks or keep quiet.
• Stressors Amplified by the City: Fast-paced city life, jammed subways, competition at work, relationship stress, can worsen both depression and anxiety, making it even harder to see yourself in a positive light.
• Therapy as a Safe Island: If you’re feeling overwhelmed, therapy can offer steady ground. Whether online or over the phone, the right support counters that inner darkness with real tools and a gentle relationship.

ADHD, Autism, Learning Differences, and Temperament

• School and Work Struggles: If your brain has a different speed, be it ADHD, autism, or a learning difference, traditional school or workplace expectations can leave you feeling behind or misunderstood. Being judged for needing extra time or for stimming can lead to deep shame, even though these are just part of how your mind works.
• Difficulty Fitting In: Feeling “out of place” in group settings can carve away at self-esteem, especially if you’ve faced teasing or exclusion for differences in communication, organization, or interests. City life, with its speed and crowds, can amplify these challenges.
• Not a Character Flaw: Neurodiversity and temperament aren’t personal failings, it’s simply a different wiring. Whether you’re highly sensitive or slow to warm up in new groups, your needs for quiet, routine, or acceptance are valid.
• Reframing Your Story: Embracing your neurodiversity can become a real strength. Self-esteem gets a boost when you focus on your unique abilities, advocate for reasonable accommodations, and drop the pressure to match someone else’s pace.

Recognizing the Signs and Symptoms of Low Self-Esteem

Some folks hide self-doubt under layers of success and smiles, making low self-esteem tough to spot, even for ourselves. Often, the outward signs don’t match the internal struggle. This section shines a light on the common emotional, behavioral, and even physical symptoms that can signal low self-worth.

Maybe you say yes when you want to say no, second-guess every compliment, or give others the benefit of the doubt more than yourself. Or perhaps you find yourself physically run down, constantly fatigued, or keeping your distance from social situations. Recognizing these signs in yourself, or seeing them in someone close, can be an important first step in breaking the cycle.

By noticing the patterns, people-pleasing, hiding achievements, or unexplained aches, you can learn to name the struggle. This opens the door to taking better care of yourself, reaching out for help, or simply being kinder toward what you’re carrying every day.

Emotional and Behavioral Patterns: People-Pleasing, Downplaying Success, and Withdrawal

• Chronic People-Pleasing: Always saying “yes” (even when you want to say “no”) is a classic sign of low self-esteem. If you bend over backward to keep others happy, it’s often because deep down, you fear rejection or feel unworthy of your own needs.
• No Boundaries: Struggling to set limits with others, at home, work, or in friendships, can leave you exhausted and resentful. This often comes from feeling like you don’t have the right to stand up for yourself.
• Downplaying Accomplishments: If you brush off praise or minimize your wins (“It was nothing,” “I just got lucky”), it might be that a critical inner voice can’t accept success. You may feel like an imposter, worried someone will find out you’re not as capable as you seem.
• Withdrawing from Relationships: Avoiding social events, keeping your camera off in meetings, or pulling back from close friends are all ways people with low self-esteem try to hide vulnerability or avoid disappointment. Hiding in plain sight isn’t about drama, it’s about protection.

Physical Symptoms, Social Disconnection, and Self-Harm

• Bodily Signs: Low self-esteem can show up in ways you might not expect. Headaches, stomach aches, fatigue, tight muscles, and even changes in posture can all be signals from your body that you’re carrying too much stress or shame.
• Social Isolation: Pulling away from friends, family, or community events isn’t just a preference for alone time, it can be a sign you don’t feel worthy of connection, or you’re afraid of judgment.
• Self-Harm Behaviors: In more severe cases, low self-worth can drive behaviors like cutting, scratching, or other forms of harm as a way to cope with overwhelming pain. If you notice these urges, know that you’re not alone and that compassionate, professional support is available.
• Addressing the Symptoms: Recognizing physical or social symptoms without judgment is important. Taking a gentle, curious approach opens doors to self-acceptance, and, when needed, professional care. Your body is giving you valuable information, listen kindly.

How to Heal and Build Healthy Self-Esteem Every Day

After recognizing the old patterns, hope kicks in, because low self-esteem isn’t a life sentence. Healing happens in small steps and everyday choices, not through dramatic transformations. This part of our journey focuses on how to rebuild confidence and shake off that inner critic, even when city life tugs your attention in a dozen directions at once.

Self-compassion is a skill you can practice, just like any other. With each kind word to yourself, or moment you set a boundary, you start to rewrite the story in your head. Building new habits, trying on small challenges, and gathering skills, even if it’s just saying “no” once in a while, are wins worth celebrating.

If you want tailored support on this journey, you’ll find hope and practical support with organizations like We Rise NYC’s self-esteem therapy, but there’s plenty you can try on your own, right now.

Be Kind to Yourself: Self-Compassion and Positive Habits

• Gentle Self-Talk: Replace harsh inner criticism with words you’d offer a friend. Instead of “I’m hopeless,” try “I’m doing my best, and that’s enough for today.” Practicing this out loud or in writing helps it feel more real.
• Journaling to Notice Wins: Keep a journal where you jot down one thing you did well or one moment of courage. Over time, these small records can drown out the critic and help you see your growth.
• Mindful Breathing: When self-doubt strikes, pause and try a few slow, deliberate breaths. Simple mindfulness techniques can calm your body, giving your mind space to interrupt negative patterns.
• Celebrating Small Steps: Don’t wait for a big achievement to be proud of yourself. Each time you make a different choice or challenge a negative thought, that counts. Recognize the effort, not just the outcome.
• Cultivating Support from Within: If you didn’t get validation growing up, it’s not too late. Practicing self-compassion is like planting new seeds; every moment you’re kind to yourself helps change your internal landscape.

Focusing on Yourself and Building Skills That Boost Confidence

• Try New Hobbies or Skills: Pick something you’ve always wanted to explore, no matter how small. The goal isn’t mastery, but to experience yourself as capable and curious.
• Focus on Strengths: List a few things you’re naturally good at or receive compliments for. Notice moments you help others or solve problems, these are real signs of capability.
• Challenge Limiting Beliefs: When a limiting thought pops up (“I can’t do that”), ask yourself if it’s based on fact or history. Experiment with new approaches and let yourself try, progress matters more than perfection.

Knowing When to Seek Professional Support for Low Self-Esteem

Some days, no matter how many self-help tips you try, the weight of low self-esteem just doesn’t lift. That’s a signal it’s time to reach outside yourself, not because you’ve failed, but because real change is tough to do alone. Whether your struggles come from old trauma, ongoing anxiety, or patterns you can’t quite break, leaning on a therapist or counselor can be the turning point.

This section walks through what it looks like to ask for help, when therapy or a professional touch might make all the difference. We’ll discuss how support can offer tools you haven’t had before (CBT, EMDR, somatic work, and more), why group support and medication might be options, and how to recognize when your struggles need more than home remedies.

If the idea of starting therapy feels daunting, remember: reaching out isn’t weakness. It’s one of the strongest moves you can make when you’re ready for change, whether it’s your first time or you’re returning for a new chapter.

How Therapy and Professional Support Can Make a Difference

• Reframing Negative Beliefs: Therapists are like guides for your inner world. Modalities like CBT help you challenge and shift negative thinking patterns, replacing “I can’t” with “I can try.” EMDR works to process past trauma so old wounds don’t drive today’s self-worth.
• Learning Healthy Habits: Professional support isn’t just talk, it’s practicing new skills. Therapists can teach you assertiveness, emotional regulation, and self-compassion. These aren’t abstract ideas; they become everyday habits that slowly rewrite your self-image.
• Creating a Safe Relationship: Therapy offers a space to feel witnessed and understood without judgment. This nurturing relationship can be the first time many people experience true validation, building trust in others and, crucially, themselves.
• Building Resilience: With the right guide, you learn to face setbacks without crumbling. Practical tools for anxiety, self-doubt, and boundaries weave together to create real-world relief, not just insight. Reaching out for help here is courage, not defeat.

Coping Strategies, Medication, and When to Get Help

• Self-Help Tools: Try journaling, mindfulness, or positive self-talk to build resilience while considering therapy.
• When Medication Helps: If your therapist or doctor suggests it, medication might support your work in therapy, especially for severe anxiety or depression.
• Knowing It’s Time: If struggles interfere with work, relationships, or basic daily function, professional help is wise.
• Building a Plan: You and your therapist will tailor a plan suited to your needs, mixing modalities as needed for healing and growth.

Conclusion

Low self-esteem isn’t a flaw, it’s an experience shaped by our histories, environments, and the world’s expectations. You’ve seen how family, thoughts, peers, culture, and even your biology all play a part. The most important takeaway? Low self-worth can be understood and it can be changed. Every gentle step, self-reflection, practicing new habits, asking for support, moves you closer to confidence. Remember, the journey to stronger self-esteem is slow and sometimes messy, but it’s possible for everyone. You do not have to walk it alone.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the most common causes of low self-esteem?

The most common causes include critical family environments, childhood trauma or neglect, persistent negative self-talk, social comparison, and pressure from peers or society. Mental health challenges such as depression or anxiety, as well as experiences with discrimination or feeling “different,” all contribute to low self-worth. Often, several of these factors combine over time to erode confidence, so there isn’t just a single root cause for everyone.

Can you fix low self-esteem as an adult?

Yes, absolutely. While early experiences set the stage, adults can reshape self-esteem through therapy, self-compassion practices, and building new habits. Recognizing harmful patterns is the first step. Healing might include challenging inner critics, rewiring thought habits, and reaching out for professional support. Many people find that building self-esteem is a journey of ongoing small changes rather than overnight transformation, but it is always possible.

What are signs that I might have low self-esteem?

Common signs include chronic self-doubt, difficulty accepting praise, people-pleasing, avoiding risks, downplaying achievements, and withdrawing from social situations. Physical symptoms like fatigue or headaches, and more serious behaviors like self-harm or constant self-criticism, are also indicators. If these patterns interfere with work, relationships, or basic well-being, it’s a sign self-esteem may need attention and support.

When should I seek professional help for self-esteem?

Consider reaching out when low self-worth disrupts your work, relationships, or daily life, or if you notice persistent sadness, anxiety, or harmful behaviors. Therapy offers a safe, structured way to address these challenges, especially if self-help feels overwhelming or ineffective. You don’t have to reach a breaking point to benefit from support; starting early often leads to faster, more lasting change.

How does therapy help with low self-esteem?

Therapy can help you recognize and challenge the beliefs, behaviors, and habits that keep your self-esteem low. Modalities like CBT, EMDR, and somatic approaches offer practical tools for shifting thought patterns, processing old wounds, and building new habits. A therapist provides validation, structure, and guidance as you build confidence and take healthier risks. Professional support makes lasting change possible, even when it once felt out of reach.

References

• AlShawi, A. F., & Lafta, R. K. (2014). Relation between childhood experiences and adults’ self-esteem: A sample from Baghdad. Qatar Medical Journal, 2014(2), 82–91.
• Gul, F., Abbas, K., Saeed, S., Haider, T., Qayyum, S. N., & Noori, S. (2024). The relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem of medical students with age and gender as moderators. Annals of Medicine & Surgery, 86(9), 5145–5151.
• Kim, Y., Lee, H., & Park, A. (2022). Patterns of adverse childhood experiences and depressive symptoms: Self-esteem as a mediating mechanism. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 57(2), 331–341.
• Kuo, J. R., Fitzpatrick, S., Ip, J., & Uliaszek, A. (2022). The who and what of validation: An experimental examination of validation and invalidation of specific emotions and the moderating effect of emotion dysregulation. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 9, Article 15.
• Curtis, M., & Garratt-Reed, D. (2026). Self-esteem as a mediator between perfectionism and mental health outcomes. Australian Journal of Psychology, 78(1), Article 2613533.